St. John Cassian: The Bridge Between East and West in Contemplative Prayer

Introduction

One of the least known and yet one of the most important figures in Christian Mysticism is St. John Cassian (c. 360-435 AD); a monk who took the wisdom of the Egyptian desert and brought it to the Latin West, a theologian who compiled all the wisdom and knowledge he had received from Egypt in a clear and concise manner relating to contemplative practice and a teacher who has informed Christian monasticism in both Eastern and Western forms for more than 15 centuries with his writings on prayer.

Born in the region now known as Romania, John trained in the Egyptian desert and the teachings of the greatest spiritual masters of his time before eventually settling in Gaul (modern-day France), where he established monasteries and wrote his major works, Cassian has often been described as a vital link between the Eastern and Western forms of Christian spirituality.

The wisdom of the desert fathers was preserved in the writings of John Cassian Institutes and Conferences, which articulate clearly the process of spiritual growth in terms of the human mind, the systematic approach to prayer, and give practical direction on how to pray, and they are still applicable today. John Cassian taught, among other things, the concept of ‘pure prayer’, the process of developing prayer life from vocal prayers to the contemplative stage, separation from distractions, as well as a balance between action and contemplation, which became the foundation for

Western monasticism, particularly in the way Benedict used Cassian’s writings.

Because John Cassian was rooted substantially in the Eastern Tradition, he maintained connections with the Eastern Tradition that would later become severed by the Schisms.

Formation in Bethlehem: The Beginning of a Quest

John Cassian began his spiritual journey in a monastery in Palestine around 380 AD with his friend Germanus. The Palestinian monastery where he and Germanus began their monastic life provided the foundation for their future prayer, scriptural study and ascetic practice. It was within this monastery that John Cassian learned the basic principles of monastic life; the order of liturgical hours, the practice of manual labor with prayer, communal discipline, and the beginning steps of contemplative reading of Scripture (lectio divina).

As a geographical location, Bethlehem is very significant, but it is also a spiritual symbol. The place where the Word became flesh was an appropriate beginning to John Cassian’s journey of contemplation. In Bethlehem, he learned to meditate on the mystery of the Incarnation – God entering into materiality, the divinity coming into union with humanity, the infinite confining itself to the finite in the form of an infant. This meditation and mystery continued to shape his whole understanding of prayer and transformation.

The Palestinian monastery was also a gathering place for pilgrims from all parts of the Christian world; its fame was spreading throughout the world because of the extraordinary holiness of the desert fathers, their performing miracles, and the profound insight they shared. John and Germanus were fascinated and hungry to hear these accounts. Although they experienced the structure of monastic life, they felt that something greater, more intense, more transformational and radical was occurring in the Egyptian wilderness.

Around 385 AD, after 5 years in Bethlehem, John Cassian and Germanus requested permission to visit the Egyptian centers for monasticism. Their intention was only to make a short visit to the desert fathers, learn from them, and then return to Palestine. They received this permission and set out on an adventure that would take them on a 7-year apprenticeship at the most advanced School of Christian Contemplation of their time.

This decision to seek out the desert fathers indicates the extent of John Cassian’s spiritual hunger and his understanding that real wisdom is not to be found in books, but through those who have experienced the Path. John Cassian did not seek out academic forms of theological education, but rather that experiential knowledge of God, i.e., not the endless theories about prayer and his continual emphasis on this priority of experience would remain evident throughout John Cassian’s teaching.

The journey itself is significant; after being nurtured and protected within the relative security and order of Palestinian monasticism, they would now leave to follow the path of the unknown into the harsh and uncertain Egyptian desert. The journey portrayed not only their commitment and courage, but also their faith. They were leaving security behind and venturing into the unknown following their spiritual instincts and sense of discernment, they trusted that God was providing them the way.

The Egyptian Desert: Apprenticeship with the Masters

Germanus and Cassian traveled through Egypt’s monastic centers seeking out the greatest spiritual masters from 385 AD to 392 AD. Over the course of nearly seven years, they learned spiritual wisdom and practices from the greatest masters of the period (the next generation of desert fathers). The training Cassian received was a direct line to the first generation of desert spirituality.

They traveled to four desert regions of Egypt: Scetis, Nitria, Kellia, and Thebaid (Upper Egypt). Each region offered a different expression of monastic life and presented Cassian with many possible expressions of contemplation.

In Scetis, they were able to see the ultimate expression of solitude and silence. The hermits lived in their isolated cells and would only meet for the weekly Eucharist. They practiced unceasing prayer while living in profound solitude; this prayer took place in complete silence, with visitors saying that the silence was so palpable that it felt like a presence of God. Cassian learned that silence is not merely an absence of sound but the presence of the fullness of God and that solitude gives birth to an ability to hear God’s voice.

The masters they encountered at that time were the greatest spiritual leaders of their generation and included several men whose very names carried much authority, including Abba Moses (who was a former robber), Abba Paphnutius, Abba Serapion, Abba Isaac, and Abba Theonas. Each offered unique wisdom drawn from their many years of practicing contemplation. Cassian preserved this teaching in his later Conferences, where he recorded the words of the fathers as if they were spoken in dialogue between Cassian, Germanus, and the fathers.

As part of their learning tradition, Cassian and Germanus lived with and near their masters; they observed their masters’ lives, followed the dialogue format of asking their masters questions, and received short teachings (apophthegmata) to help them learn spiritual wisdom. Although there was no formal training in the classroom setting, they received their apprenticeship in the form of examples and models.

They watched how the masters prayed and handled temptations and how they maintained their peace during times of tribulation. Cassian learned that the desert fathers had a sophisticated psychology of combatting temptations caused by logismoi (i.e., destructive and tempting thoughts). They had elevated the number of principal vices to eight (gluttony, lust, avarice, anger, sadness, sloth/acedia, vainglory, pride) and taught practical means of combating them.

Cassian also learned about prayer and contemplation and that prayer progresses (and ultimately ends) with wordless contemplation of God. He was taught about “pure prayer,” or prayer beyond words, images, or concepts. Rather, pure prayer is the restful awareness of God’s presence. Additionally, Cassian learned that pure prayer is given by God and not created by humans through the use of techniques.

The desert fathers taught Cassian about discernment, which is the ability to distinguish between divine inspiration, human imagination, and demonic deception. They emphasized that spiritual gifts mean nothing without virtue, that miraculous experiences do not demonstrate holiness, and that true spiritual transformation shows growth in character and not the presence of extraordinary phenomena.

Cassian absorbed the desert emphasis on humility as an essential foundation for all spiritual life, with all fathers teaching that without humility, progression in virtue is impossible and pride destroys contemplation and prayer, leading to the failure of the soul to recognize the truth. In contrast, true humility creates openness to God’s grace, receptivity to God’s work, and willingness to be transformed by God.

Cassian also learned that when the physical and spiritual disciplines are integrated, fasting, vigils, manual labor, and the ascetic life create conditions for contemplation to flourish and are not ends in themselves but are rather an essential means of establishing discipline over the flesh. The desert fathers taught that there should be a balance of rigor/discipline with a degree of care for the body.

Return to Constantinople and Ordination

Cassian and Germanus had fulfilled their vow to the monastery at Bethlehem by returning to their homeland of Palestine after having reached Constantinople, but their time spent in the desert had changed them, and therefore they had learned the wisdom of the desert into themselves, a subsequent responsibility to both preserve and transmit this wisdom. After a period of time spent in Palestine, they journeyed to Constantinople in the late 390s.

Constantinople was at the time under the administration of St. John Chrysostom, the golden-tongued preacher and reforming bishop, and Cassian was admitted to service under him and then later ordained a deacon and eventually held different positions of service. The ministry Cassian practiced during this time in Constantinople was in contrast to the solitude of the desert and he gained exposure to politics, liturgy, and the difficulties of bringing monastic practices into the urban environment.

Cassian learned about the tension that exists between a contemplative withdrawal from the world and church engagement and participation in the community during his time spent under the ministry of Chrysostom because the desert fathers typically avoided becoming involved in church and politics and were largely independent of the bishops.

Chrysostom was a model for Cassian on how to apply contemplative depth to pastoral ministry. The manner in which his depth of prayer sustained the leadership that he provided for his church and the ways in which his depth of monastic discipline affected Chrysostom’s character and bishopric were significant influences upon Cassian as well.

Cassian had the opportunity to witness the darker aspect of the church’s politics as well. In 404 AD, the Empress Eudoxia was able to use corrupt methods to remove Chrysostom from the office of bishop and thereby depose and exile him. Cassian and the followers of Chrysostom found themselves in a position of having to appear before the emperor of the Roman Empire because they supported Chrysostom.

The persecution that Cassian experienced while travelling to Rome as a member of the delegation seeking the reinstatement of Chrysostom also deepened Cassian’s spiritual insight and taught him that doing what is right does not ensure worldly success and that the virtuous sometimes suffer, while the wicked temporarily have good fortune, and that faith involves trusting that God’s justice will prevail in the end, although at times we may feel that human justice is lacking.

As recorded by Cassian, during his time in Rome (404-415 AD), he was ordained a priest and continued to serve in different capacities, all of which he would have been able to experience for himself the various expressions of the Christian life that existed in the Western Church, including the different liturgical traditions, theological emphases, and practical approaches to monastic life.

Cassian recognized that the wisdom of the Egyptian desert would be able to be translated to fit the needs of the Western Church and that although there may have been similar principles in both cultures, Cassian saw the need to adapt the wisdom of the desert fathers to fit each of the various Western cultures so that the essential essence of the wisdom of the desert fathers could still be communicated effectively to the Western Christians.

During his time in Rome, Cassian most likely began developing an organizational strategy to present the spiritual wisdom present within the Egyptian desert to the Latin Christians; he recognized the need for practical guidance for the Western monks so that they would not have to rely solely on what was available in the various forms of scattered sayings of the desert fathers.

Marseilles and the Founding of Monasteries

Cassian left Egypt for Marseilles (ancient Massilia) in Southern Gaul around 415 AD, where he founded two monasteries, one for men, St. Victor’s, and the other for women. These monasteries became places for experimenting with how Egyptian desert wisdom could be applied within Western culture. They illustrated that the teachings of the desert fathers could be adapted to Cenobitic (communal) monastic life under varying climatic conditions and cultural practices.

The foundation of the Monastery of St. Victor functioned as a prototype for Cassian’s earlier work in Egypt. Here, Cassian sought to utilize the principles he had learned and put them into practice where they would be manifest in a different climate than that of Egypt. Because of its cooler climate, Cassian found it necessary to amend the Egyptian desert ascetic practice of fasting and the wearing of garments to the conditions of Gaul. The culture of Gaul was also vastly different from that of Egypt; therefore, Cassian perceived an enormous gap in the expression of asceticism.

The monks of St. Victor were also mainly novice monks; they were not the more advanced monks whom Cassian had known in Egypt. As a result, Cassian had to translate the radical ascetic practices of the Egyptian desert into terms that were suitable for the average monk who was striving for holiness.

The monastic life which Cassian constructed in Marseilles was based on multiple building blocks taken from the practice of the Egyptian desert fathers. Fixed hours of prayer, or the Divine Office, punctuated the monastic life of St. Victor Monastery and provided the means for the monks of St. Victor to return regularly to God. The Divine Office was not merely a religious obligation; it represented a training period in unceasing prayer, providing a rhythm which maintained a continuous awareness of God’s presence throughout daily life.

The balance between prayer and manual labor maintained the monastic life of St. Victor; it provided a source of income for the monastery and prevented idleness among the monks. Cassian also stressed the importance of working with the right intentions and how the work performed by the monks became a form of prayer when it was done with pure intentions. He recognized that the physical labor provided for balancing of prayer with contemplation, thereby creating an environment for preventing delusions of the spirit. The balance of ora et labora (prayer and labor) which would one day become the monastic motto of the Benedictine order was already present in the practice of the Monastery of St. Victor.

Lectio divina, or the contemplative reading of Scripture, formed the foundation of the spiritual development of monks at St. Victor Monastery. Cassian taught the monks of St. Victor how to read the Scriptures slowly and meditatively, allowing the Scriptures to give them personal inspiration instead of reading fast to get through a certain number of books or chapters. The result of the monks’ reading merging with the prayer would create an active conversation with God in the words of the Scriptures and the formation of their consciousness by the words of God.

The monastery was designed so that the monks of St. Victor would support in prayer and at the same time make it possible for them to challenge one another. In this communal approach to monasticism, the monks were obliged to live with one another and to therefore have a chance to confront their hidden pride, to undergo trials of patience, to discover character defects that would have otherwise been hidden in solitude, and to grow in virtues through their contact with their monastic brothers. Cassian taught that by embracing community in whatever manner it presented itself in ascetic practice required as much graced assistance as any of the more dramatic forms of asceticism. He encouraged his monks to view accidents, irritations, and challenges presented by their monastic brethren as opportunities to grow into virtue.

Cassian placed much emphasis on the necessity of spiritual direction, whereby younger monks benefitted from the experience and insight of their elders as they struggled with the interior conflicts of life. Cassian specifically stressed the vital importance of the relationship between the elder and the younger monk. To attempt or pursue spiritual life without the insight, wisdom, and encouragement of a spiritual guide is to place oneself into a very precarious situation. The risks attendant with self-deception require an external perspective in order to adequately identify and correct the error.

The “Institutes”: Systematic Training in Monastic Life

Between 419-426 AD, at the request of Bishop Castor of Apt who was establishing monasteries, Cassian wrote his first major work, “The Institutes of the Cenobitic Life.” This text, comprising twelve books, provided systematic introduction to monastic practice, covering both external observances and interior spiritual combat.

The first four books address external practices—monastic dress, the Divine Office, psalmody, and nocturnal prayer. These sections describe Egyptian customs while adapting them for Gallic use. Cassian explains not just what monks should do but why—showing how external practices serve interior transformation, how physical disciplines create conditions for contemplation.

His treatment of the Divine Office reveals his understanding of liturgical prayer. The hours aren’t merely duty but opportunity for encounter with God through Scripture and psalmody. Cassian emphasizes quality over quantity—better to pray few psalms with attention than many with wandering mind. He teaches methods for maintaining focus, for allowing psalms to become personal prayer rather than merely recited words.

Books five through twelve address the eight principal vices: gluttony, lust, avarice, anger, sadness, acedia (spiritual sloth), vainglory, and pride. This section represents Cassian’s systematization of desert teaching on spiritual combat, organizing scattered wisdom into coherent framework. Each vice receives detailed analysis—its nature, its manifestations, its remedies, its relationship to other vices.

His treatment of thoughts (logismoi) demonstrates profound psychological insight. Cassian understands that sins begin as thoughts, that spiritual warfare occurs primarily in the mind, that managing thoughts determines spiritual success or failure. He teaches that one cannot prevent thoughts from arising but can prevent consent, can refuse to engage with destructive suggestions, can redirect attention toward God when temptations assault.

The teaching on acedia—spiritual sloth or the “noonday demon”—became particularly influential. Cassian describes this state with remarkable precision: restlessness in one’s cell, dissatisfaction with monastic life, conviction that progress is impossible, fantasies about leaving, physical agitation combined with spiritual paralysis. His analysis of this condition and his practical remedies remain relevant for anyone pursuing sustained spiritual practice.

Each vice section includes practical strategies for resistance. Against gluttony, he recommends moderate fasting combined with vigilance over appetite’s subtle demands. Against lust, he teaches custody of eyes, avoidance of occasions, immediate redirection of lustful thoughts to prayer. Against anger, he emphasizes never letting sun set on anger, immediate reconciliation, habitual gentleness.

Cassian’s treatment of pride as the final and most dangerous vice reveals his psychological sophistication. Pride can infect even virtuous actions, can masquerade as humility, can corrupt spiritual progress at every stage. The monk who conquers seven vices only to fall into pride loses everything. Only radical humility—continuous awareness of dependence on grace—provides protection.

The “Conferences”: Dialogues on Contemplative Wisdom

The Conferences, Cassian’s masterwork written between 426-428 AD, provides a historical context within which to understand how monasticism continues to evolve today. Each conference reflects the context(s) of the time period in which they were written, including the influence of Alexandrian philosophy and early Christian teachings. The evolution of Benedictine spirituality does not remove itself from the desert spirituality present during the time of Cassian, but rather continues to be a vital component of the development of this early form of Christian spirituality.

The First Conference, with Abba Moses, addresses the goal and end of monastic life. Moses teaches that the goal (skopos) is purity of heart, while the end (telos) is the kingdom of God. All monastic practices—fasting, vigils, labor, reading—serve the single purpose of achieving purity of heart, which itself enables entry into God’s kingdom. This teaching provided monastic life with clear direction, preventing confusion of means with ends.

The Ninth and Tenth Conferences, with Abba Isaac, contain Cassian’s most famous teaching on prayer. Isaac describes four types of prayer mentioned by Paul: supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings. But he also teaches about progression from these verbal forms toward “prayer of fire”—pure, wordless contemplation that transcends language and concepts.

Isaac introduces the formula that would become central to later contemplative practice, particularly in the Eastern Jesus Prayer tradition: “O God, make speed to save me; O Lord, make haste to help me” (Psalm 70:1). This brief invocation, repeated continuously, can sustain awareness of God throughout daily activities, during sleepless nights, in moments of temptation, until it becomes spontaneous—continuing even during sleep.

This conference also discusses contemplative prayer’s characteristics. Pure prayer is brief—not because of time’s shortness but because words cease. It’s frequent—the contemplative returns to it constantly throughout the day. It’s fiery—characterized by intense awareness of God’s presence. It’s often accompanied by tears—not of sadness but of compunction and longing. It comes as gift—one cannot force or manufacture it but can only prepare through purification and petition.

The Fourteenth Conference, with Abba Nesteros, addresses spiritual knowledge. Cassian distinguishes two types: praktike (practical knowledge of virtue and combating vice) and theoretike (contemplative knowledge of divine mysteries). One must master praktike before advancing to theoretike—moral purification precedes mystical illumination. This progression from action to contemplation structured all later Western spiritual theology.

The Sixteenth Conference addresses friendship, exploring how contemplatives can maintain relationships without compromising solitude or becoming distracted from God. Cassian teaches that spiritual friendship enhances rather than hinders prayer, that those united in seeking God support each other’s journey, that isolation from all human connection breeds pride and delusion rather than holiness.

The Twenty-Third Conference, with Abba Theonas, examines nocturnal illusions—the devil’s attacks during sleep through dreams and fantasies. This teaching reveals the desert fathers’ sophisticated understanding of the unconscious, their recognition that spiritual warfare continues even during sleep, their wisdom about interpreting dreams and maintaining vigilance over one’s entire psychic life.

Throughout the Conferences, Cassian emphasizes balance and discretion. The desert fathers repeatedly warn against excessive asceticism, urge moderation in fasting and vigils, and insist that spiritual practices must be proportioned to individual capacity. This emphasis on discernment (diakrisis) became central to Western monasticism’s practical wisdom.

The Theology of Grace: The Semi-Pelagian Controversy

The conflict between Pelagius and Augustine regarding the appropriateness of grace, free will, and salvation will be analyzed through Cassian’s view. Pelagius held that man would be able to be righteous by his own natural power, while Augustine felt that the very structure of human nature required the intervention of the grace of God and predestination to be saved. Cassian sought to find a middle ground between these two extremes by saying that God’s grace and human work must coexist in order for a person to obtain salvation.

In his Thirteenth Conference with Abba Chaeremon, Cassian addresses the controversy of grace and free will from a contemplative standpoint. For Cassian, to progress spiritually, a person must experience the synergy of God’s divine power and his human will. He teaches that God is the source of salvation; he initiates it, inspires it, and brings it to completion; however, humans have to participate in the process of salvation, respond to God’s grace, and persevere in their struggle for holiness. Neither God’s grace nor human works are sufficient to cause an individual’s transformation.

Cassian’s position, now known as Semi-Pelagianism, grew out of his personal experience with the spiritual life. He had lived in the desert observing how God transformed those who were willing to pursue a spiritual way of life through the grace of God. He saw that God’s power accomplishes what human works alone cannot; but he also learned that human participation in the journey was necessary. The monks he witnessed did not achieve holiness by being totally passive, but rather through strenuous effort, perseverance, and the assistance of grace.

The emphasis on human participation in the spiritual journey reflected the practicality of the spirituality of the monks. For the monks, prayer represented a form of effort; their constant prayer required discipline and perseverance. They fasted, prayed at night, fought against their thoughts, remained silent, and generally did all of these activities as if they were doing hard physical labor. At the same time, the monks were fully aware that their transformation was ultimately dependent on the grace of God; they recognized that all the effort in the world would lead to nothing unless God assisted them. Cassian’s theological understanding of the relationship between God’s grace and man’s struggle captured these experiences.

Cassian’s position was viewed by those in the Augustine camp as being dangerous and potentially creating pride in members of the church because of his emphasis on human participation. The controversy continued for generations until the 529 AD Second Council of Orange addressed these theological differences in a manner that affirmed Augustine’s view of the primacy of grace while still providing for a role of assistance for humans through God’s grace.

The theological disagreement demonstrates the difficulty of articulating the mystical experience of God from the vantage point of a contemplative experience. On one hand, the emphasis on God’s sovereignty to the exclusion of human ability could lead to a state of passivity and fatalism. On the other hand, an undue emphasis on human effort could lead to Pelagianism and spiritual pride. Cassian tried to develop a language that would reflect both ideas, and his theology reflects that effort to honor both the primacy of God’s grace and the need for human cooperation.

Pure Prayer: The Summit of Contemplation

Cassian’s distinctive contribution to Christian mysticism is the notion of “pure prayer” or oratio pura, a state of prayer as the summit of contemplation. This state of prayer transcends the limitations of time, space, or human words to experience the divine presence of God directly.

Cassian describes pure prayer as a fire, not allegorically, but to communicate his actual experience of pure love for God, burning with the intensity and singular focus of the soul on God. Pure prayer is not an intellectual activity; rather it is a passionate experience of being filled with the love of God. Many individuals experience pure prayer while physically feeling warmth despite being physically cold. Meditation and mindfulness, which are forms of pure and heartfelt prayer, are not only transformative for the person praying. Because when we pray with pure hearts and minds, we are also transformed by the experience of pure prayer.

Through the act of pure prayer we are purified from sin, filled with wisdom, inflamed with love, strengthened in virtue, and continuously conformed to God’s image. The transformational effects of prayer are an authentic reflection of John Cassian’s idea that genuine contemplation must transform one’s character, while experience that does not change you or produces pride likely comes from another source altogether.

Cassian advises that no one can perform continuous contemplation during this earthly life; during your earthly journey, you will have to alternate between moments of pure prayer and normal earthly consciousness.

Thus after experiencing pure prayer, one must go back to vocal prayer, continue to do manual labor, and fulfill your duties to your community. However, once you have experienced pure prayer you will physically crave the experience of prayer and will long for the return of contemplation for all your days.

The Eight Principal Vices: Mapping Spiritual Combat

John Cassian brought to the Western Church a systematic way to understand sin’s psychology and fight the battle of sin through the eight principal vices (later changed to the Seven Deadly Sins by Gregory the Great). Cassian synthesizes and organizes many fragmented teachings of the wisdom of the Egyptian desert in order to create a clear understanding of the eight principal vices.

The order in which the eight principal vices appear is significant because gluttony is the first vice discussed since excessive body cravings are the most obvious and direct temptations to humans. But because one cannot overcome gluttony, one cannot progress beyond gluttony to address subtler vices. Overcoming one vice creates conditions to overcome the next one; conversely, if a person does not overcome any stage of vices, their strength will grow in every subsequent vice.

Gluttony is not just about eating too much food. It is about having a disordered attachment to food, such as craving for certain types of food, eating at inappropriate times, and being obsessed with specific flavors. Cassian suggests moderate fasting as the means to overcome gluttony. He encouraged the monk to eat only what is sufficient for his health and strength; to not make an idol of food; and to be free from being a slave to one’s appetite.

Lust follows gluttony. Sexual lust grows in intensity as we indulge our bodily cravings. Cassian recognized the power of sexual desire, and yet he maintained hope that people could be chaste. Because he recognized the power of lust, Cassian suggested how the monk could develop chastity: keeping watch over one’s eyes; avoiding occasions to look at this which causes lust; immediately turning away from any thoughts of lust; being patient and persistent through the repeated failures of lustful desires and putting your full trust in God’s grace to help you accomplish that which you cannot do through your own efforts.

Avarice develops when bodily needs seem secured. The monk who has conquered his food and sexual appetites may still have a craving for things, such as possessions, security, and comfort. Cassian encouraged the monk to practice radical poverty and to trust in God’s providence as the solution; he taught that a man who practices evangelical poverty is able to break the bond of avarice.

Anger mars relationships and disturbs interior peace. Cassian acknowledged that there is such a thing as righteous anger, but he also warned that most of our anger is committed to service to our pride and not to justice. Among his teachings concerning anger were: not sleeping angry; reconciling all differences immediately; practicing gentleness habitually; and recognizing that the offences we suffer from others is far smaller than the offences we have committed against God.

Sadness differs from clinical depression—it’s a spiritual state of discouragement, grief over real or imagined losses, dejection that saps motivation. Sadness is the state of our soul being discouraged; experiencing grief over a loss, whether real or imagined; it is also about feeling sad and being without motivation to do anything. Cassian pointed out various causes of sadness: unresolved anger; unfulfilled desires; the beginning of acedia. Remedies for sadness include: recognizing the transitory nature of all things in the world; trusting in God’s providence; maintaining joy regardless of your circumstances.

Acedia, the “noonday demon,” represents spiritual torpor, boredom with prayer, restlessness in one’s calling, fantasies of escaping monastic life. Acedia manifests in fantasies of leaving a monastic life. Cassian’s greatest explanation of acedia is illustrated in the picture he described of a restless monk watching the sun move and opening the door expecting to see someone and no one arrives. Additionally, he considered any task that was not what was assigned by God to him his job to be an undoing. In overcoming acedia, the remedy was for the monk to persevere and continue to stay in their cell, even though they may have restlessness; to continue to pray even if they have nothing to show for their prayers; and to believe that by continuing to persist through acedia, the monk will develop his spiritual muscles.

Vainglory loves human praise, seeks attention, craves recognition, and it causes you to engage in virtuous acts to please others instead of to please God. Cassian taught that in order to combat vainglory, the monk must keep hidden his virtue and his spirituality and not allow others to know the gifts he has received from God and focus on their interior life rather than on pleasing others.

Pride, the last and most serious vice, leads the monastic to form a self-image that says: “All the good I have accomplished came from me and no one else.” They will also forget their dependence on God’s grace; and they will continue to believe they have achieved their spiritual growth. The vice of pride can enter into any stage of our spiritual journey, even into a monastic individual’s virtues. Cassian taught that only through radical humility, by always being aware that all of the good he has been given has come from God, can a person be protected from the vice of pride.

This was the framework that has helped generations of Christians to have a roadmap of their interior spiritual warfare, helping them to know how sin works, how vices are related to each other, and how to engage in effective spiritual warfare.

The Integration of Action and Contemplation

Cassian’s teaching was about how these two areas of action (praktike) and theoretical reasons (theoretike) were related, giving reasons for which serious people find serious growth.
Evagrius’s words came from Evagrius Monasticism, but Cassian makes it more understandable to the West and how the two areas of one’s spiritual life progress.

The praktike is the actual labor in one’s performance; it is to struggle to free oneself from vice and to gain all the virtues, so it includes fasting, vigils, manual labor, obedience, humility, and all the workings, or actives, that have the function to suppress the passions and build the virtues, or the character of the person. It takes tremendous effort and continually to remain vigilant whilst one is laboring to know God.

The theoretike is understanding as such—understanding the things of God as they really are. It is thinking deeply about how the depths mean something more than the depth. It includes understanding the words of Scripture; it also includes contemplating creation for the sake of God and finally it also includes the purest form of prayer when one does not need any mediation. This stage predominantly is through grace but to some extent is dependent on how much work the individual has participated in producing the steps to receive grace. Cassian clearly teaches the progression from praktike to and through the theoretical and that one must be a level of purification prior to engaging in authentic theoretical activity. If someone is still consumed by the passions, they will not be able to truly engage in the deepening of their spirituality through theoretical engagement.

Although many people in the Christian tradition do pursue both theoretical engagement and engaging in the practice of theoretical engagement, they do so in differing degrees of motivation. For example, for an individual to have ‘tasted the sweetness of God’ while praying and thus is able to remain true to that ‘sweetness’ through the dry spells is generally indicative of someone who has engaged in theoretical and has the capacity to persist.

Cassian recognized that the majority of those who are contemplatives have need to continue to engage in the practice of the practical; therefore, there is a need for individuals to either engage in or support others in remaining practically active throughout their entire lives. Just as the Christian has been called to serve their Creator through their own labor, an individual who ceases to engage in practical action for the sake of their Creator will cease to engage in theoretical activity.

Cassian teaches an integration of the two extremes of activism and quietism—the integrator of both ‘means’ and ‘ends.’ The activist attempts to live a life of active virtue while dismissing the theoretical, and the quietist seeks to have secure ‘intimacy’ with God while merely overlooking the importance of practical development.

Cassian also recognizes the necessity of providing the ‘integrative’ support in light of the perennial debate of those who seek and wish for theoretical activity-only for the contemplative vocation and thus there are some who are called to engage primarily in action (service or leadership); however, they all need to be rooted in the knowledge of God through the medium of engagement or the process of growth through all dimensions and on the foundation of the practicer’s experience of theoretical action leading to growth in Christ.

All of these teachings of Cassian have been greatly influential in the development of much of the monastic movement in the Western tradition. Much of what is written in the Rule of Benedict is directly traceable to the teachings of Cassian. The complete balance of prayer, work, and study now defines the definition of the monastic experience in the Western tradition, continues to reflect the wisdom on the integrative relationship of contemplative and practical living as taught by Cassian.

Scripture and Prayer: The Practice of Lectio Divina

Cassian’s teachings on the reading of Scripture build on how the process of meditation creates a bridge between vocal prayer to pure contemplation. Through his association with the Egyptians, Cassian practiced and then later taught the lectio divina (divine reading), which allows the reader to learn about God through meditatively engaging with the Scriptures.

The lectio divina, according to Cassian, includes several stages:

First comes lectio proper—the patient, deliberate reading of the Scripture; it calls for an appreciation of the word, the phrase, and image; and it allows for the gradual self-discovery of the text.

Second comes meditatio—pondering the words and phrases that one has been reading; there is a continual reciting of significant phrases, etc. This engagement is both intellectual and imaginative. It may be thought of as thinking about and “with” the Scriptures.

Third comes oratio—prayer that is drawn from meditation. As the person has time to meditate contemplatively on the Scriptures, prayer develops spontaneously between the person and God. This is the “prayer” of thanksgiving for the goodness of God. It is also for the intent of confessing one’s own personal sin; and for the aid needed in preparing for the application of the lesson taught by this portion of the Bible; and for intercession as the writer could imagine for those he was engaging mentally with through reading the passage.

Fourth comes contemplatio—resting in God’s presence beyond words. When one has completed the process of meditation and prayer, not everything must necessarily be given expression through words, many times, a person’s soul can simply “rest” in the knowledge of God’s existence without requiring language or thought. This represents the beginning of pure prayer; it marks the transition from the act of thinking discursively to a simple awareness of God’s existence.

Cassian taught that this is how theoretical engages in reading and working through the Scripture meditatively; that is, you do not engage in four distinct steps but rather naturally flow from one to another as one is guided by the Holy Spirit. Sometimes all the stages of development will be completed in one sitting; sometimes, repeated returns to the same biblical passage over several days and weeks will be required before all four stages of the process are completed.

Cassian also believed in the importance of remembering and saving the sections of the Scripture which were engaged; he encouraged the readers of the Bible to commit as many Scriptural sections as possible to memory, particularly the Psalms. Committed passages of the Scriptures become a constant source of mediation and reflection, they are available at all times while you are at work/working and at those times when you are waking up or at your work place, and occult thoughts, are providing you with protection through the power of the Word of God.

He taught that different passages of Scripture serve different purposes, such as: “narratives”, serve as examples provide warnings and encouragement; “prophetic” serve as a representation of God’s purpose; “wisdom literature” provides practical guidance on how to live our lives; “psalms” provide a means of articulating an individual’s human emotions via a theological expression; “gospels” present the Christ to be meditated on and to assimilate into your life.

Cassian also recognized that each Scriptural passage had varying levels of meaning: the literal meaning; the allegorical (spiritual meaning), the moral, and a mystical interpretation. The process of contemplative reading encourages the individual to look beyond just the literal level but to go deeper to find the additional spiritual lessons. This allows us to see how many of the historical narratives of the Old Testament foreshadowed Christ’s coming, how some of the historical narratives inspire moral development and how every passage of Scripture points towards union with God.

By taking this view of the Scriptures and the lessons learned through the process of lectio divina, they were able to keep the Scripture as the Word of God and continually spoke to them personally and allowed them to become engaged in experiencing God rather than just acquiring knowledge. In addition, the process of lectio divina encouraged the reader to pray and, through prayer, to experience personal transformation.

Discernment: The Virtue of Virtues

Discernment is viewed as an essential attribute of the spirit, according to author and theologian, John Cassian. The author viewed discernment, or discretio, as the greatest virtue of all virtues, which supports Christian ascetics in their daily lives. Partly inspired by Abba Moses, Cassian provides us with an understanding of the significance of discernment and how to cultivate it.

Discernment defines the difference between God’s guidance and temptation from the devil, as well as your own self-will. Every second of your spiritual life requires making decisions about which thoughts you will remain with, which thoughts you will choose to deny, and which practices you will choose to adopt into your life. When you cannot discern the difference between God and the devil you may end up following the devil’s temptations or making bad decisions.

In Cassian’s view, both experience and knowledge must go hand-in-hand for one to have true discernment. Knowledge comes from the Bible, the church, and your wise elders, while experience is developed through years of prayer (both good and bad), allowing the person to learn what works in prayer (or not). Thus, Cassian’s ideal of discernment combines traditional wisdom with an individual’s personal experience.

In Cassian’s teaching of discernment’s significance towards an individual’s ascetical practices, he warns that the lack of discernment can cause an individual to develop extreme asceticism that hinders health (physically and mentally) rather than enhances their prayer life. Too much fasting can make a person physically unable to pray, whereas not sleeping enough can hinder a person’s ability to remain vigilant. The practice of too much penance will breed pride instead of humility. Discernment helps the individual determine what is appropriate for them, considering their current situation.

Cassian’s teaching of discernment also governs how a disciple is obedient, gives spiritual direction, and the disciple’s response to spiritual direction from their elder/s. Disciples should think critically about which elder/s to follow, as not all are wise. In addition, even good elders will not always be correct in their guidance. However, he believed that in all instances, a disciple must seek guidance from an elder despite the probability of being given poor advice.

In Cassian’s view, a discerned individual will have a moderate view of life and have a balanced approach when both practicing asceticism and living life. A moderate individual recognizes that everyone has differences, is capable of adapting their practices according to their circumstances, recognizes the best way to pursue the spiritual life is through the “royal road,” the path followed by the great spiritual fathers of the desert and represents the most effective way to develop the spiritual life while avoiding the greatest dangers.

Cassian also cautioned that the lack of discernment in the lives of most monks may have caused more destruction than any other vice. Monks beginning their spiritual journey with zeal but no discernment become disillusioned through living an overly austere lifestyle. Monks who performed “spectacular” acts of penance to impress friends bred nothing but “vainglory”. Monks who misinterpret the Scriptures or are coerced by poor spiritual direction have fallen into practices that harmed them rather than helped them.

The journey to develop discernment is made through being humble, seeking advice from others, and being patient. Humility keeps an individual from being delusionally self-confident and allows them to see that they need to seek spiritual guidance. Humility allows an individual to be teachable and understand their limitations. Seeking spiritual direction allows an individual to learn from an elders’ wisdom, compare their inner motivation with their traditions, and be open to being corrected. Patience means allowing discernment to develop gradually over the course of many years of discipline rather than expecting instantaneous enlightenment or answers.

Legacy: Shaping Western Monasticism

Through the influence of St. John Cassian, Western monasticism cannot be overstated. He became the primary channel where all Egyptian desert wisdom flowed toward the Latin West, profoundly impacting all future forms of Western contemplative spirituality. St. Benedict, through his Rule for Monasteries (written in about 530), made Cassian’s Institutes and the Conferences mandatory reading for all monks and influenced the development of St. Benedict’s balanced monastic philosophy (a combination of prayer, studying, and working).

The strength of St. Benedict’s monastic philosophy is reflected in all of the teachings found in Cassian’s writing. Specifically, the emphasis Cassian placed on stability and moderation within ascetic practice was echoed in St. Benedict’s teachings.

Furthermore, it can be said that the entire spirituality of the Western Church was influenced by Cassian, as the main source of foundational teachings was his writings. The framework of vices and virtues incorporated into the majority of confessional and spiritual direction manuals have roots and are developed from Cassian’s teaching (and writing) about the stages of prayer and mystical theology. Cassian’s emphasis on repeated meditative practices, known as lectio divina, is foundational for the spiritual development of monks.

Over the centuries, Cassian’s influence can be seen through the writings of various spiritual writers both in the East and West. His foundations influenced John Climacus in the East, Gregory the Great in the West, and the Medieval mystics—such as Bernard of Clairvaux and the Victorines—utilized his teachings. His influence can also be seen in the writings of Ignatius of Loyola, particularly in regard to his teaching on discernment of spirits.

The Conferences became a classic spiritual book in many monasteries, because of its easy reading style for monastic brothers to read publicly and read privately by others desiring spiritual direction. The way Cassian used dialogue in his writing made his profound wisdom accessible to all, and the practical approach he used ensured that readers would find his examples relevant. The identifying quality found in Cassian’s writings was the psychological precision with which he described the nuances of an individual’s growth and contemplation during prayer.

Cassian’s teachings about pure prayer have influenced both Eastern and Western contemplative practices. The Eastern Orthodox use of the Jesus Prayer expresses his influence upon this divine form of spiritual prayer, especially in his recommendations on repeatedly using simple phrases in prayer. In the West, contemplative spiritual practices, including The Cloud of Unknowing and Carmelite mysticism, find their foundation in the descriptions of contemplative prayer that St. John Cassian wrote of.

Additionally, although his Semi-Pelagianism on the surface is considered controversial and is officially rejected by the church, those practical elements of the Semi-Pelagian position have influenced the spiritual life of individuals living in the Western Church for many centuries. Elements such as the concept of human cooperation with God’s grace; the requirement of human effort and discipline; and the responsibility of each individual to decide how to respond to God’s invitation to cooperate with His grace have been balanced by the principle of grace’s primacy to establish Western spiritual anthropology.

Conclusion: The Great Synthesizer

St. John Cassian’s understanding of the “desert fathers” of Egypt brought this ancient wisdom to modern practitioners of Christianity. Cassian had a unique gift for bringing together various teachings of the different desert fathers, conserving these teachings and translating them into a single coherent and practical system for contemporary Western Christians to implement and adapt within their lives. While he was able to achieve great success and notoriety by introducing new practices to Christianity, his real genius was found in the way he brought together and preserved the disparate ideas of many masters into a unified understanding of the purpose of desert practices and how they relate to the collective experience of the Christian community.

In an era marked by rampant spiritual consumerism and obsession with ‘technique,’ St. John Cassian remains an important reminder of the true nature of contemplation, purifying prayer through grace and moral transformation prior to mystical enlightenment. His teachings challenge the mystically-minded Christian community to engage in practical methods of self-analysis before engaging in any esoteric or mystical experiences.

The eight ‘vices’ that St. John Cassian taught are nothing more than a perennial record of our constant battle against sin within our own mind and body and how to resist sin – they offer a ‘map’ of how the sinful tendencies of humanity exist in our mind and how we can effectively resist these tendencies. He offers the contemporary Christian struggling with some form of addiction or compulsion, an understanding of the nature of sin and its effect on human consciousness, as well as practical steps for changing the habits that lead to such behaviors.

The method of lectio divina that Cassian organized remains one of the most readily accessible and transformative spiritual practices of the Christian tradition. In a time of escalating biblical illiteracy, lectio divina is one way in which to engage with scripture in a slow, meditative, and prayerful manner. It offers an alternative to both the literalism of fundamentalism and the liberal reluctance to engage with scripture, as it demonstrates how scripture may remain a dynamic and alive source of inspiration and change in the life of the present-day reader.

In discussing the need for discernment, St. John Cassian recognizes the ongoing challenge of recognizing authentic versus counterfeit spirituality. The New Age movement and experimental spirituality are posing challenges to traditional spirituality by presenting ‘new’ ideas and methods for achieving transcendent states. The criteria laid out by St. John Cassian regarding how to differentiate between genuine spiritual experiences and those that are false or misleading may serve contemporary practitioners of Christianity as invaluable resources as they seek to navigate through the myriad of spiritual pathways.

Finally, St. John Cassian assures us that even today the possibility of achieving ‘pure prayer’ or ‘wordless contemplation’ remains for every individual seeking God and growing in personal union with Him. The soul can unite with God to the extent that it is possible to communicate with Him without the use of language; thus, the highest expression of prayer is the simplest form. For those persevering through years of ordinary and vocal prayer, the writings of St. John Cassian continues to sustain and assure them that their movement toward prayer and contemplation is a real possibility for all, not only the elite or spiritual leaders.

St. John Cassian, bridge between East and West, preserver of desert wisdom, systematizer of contemplative practice, stands as guide for all seeking deeper prayer and closer communion with God. His writings remain remarkably fresh, his insights psychologically accurate, his practical wisdom immediately applicable. In returning to Cassian, contemporary Christians access a living stream flowing from Christianity’s contemplative headwaters, drinking from wells dug by the desert fathers whose wisdom he preserved for all generations. Through him, the desert speaks still, calling each generation to purity of heart, progression in prayer, and the pure contemplation where the soul rests in the God who is simultaneously the journey’s goal and the companion walking every step of the way.